Article 370

ARTICLE 370: LAWS AND POLITICS While the Constitution recognises in Article 370 the special status of Jammu and Kashmir, the Central Government's policies since 1953 have totally undermined its autonomy. Senior lawyer and political analyst A. G. NOORANI discusses both aspects and suggests a way out of the mess. â€Å"I say with all respect to our Constitution that it just does not matter what your Constitution says; if the people of Kashmir do not want it, it will not go there. Because what is the alternative? The alternative is compulsion and coercion†¦ â€Å"We have fought the good fight about Kashmir on the field of battle†¦ (and) †¦ in many a chancellery of the world and in the United Nations, but, above all, we have fought this fight in the hearts and minds of men and women of that State of Jammu and Kashmir. Because, ultimately – I say this with all deference to this Parliament – the decision will be made in the hearts and minds of the men and wom en of Kashmir; neither in this Parliament, nor in the United Nations nor by anybody else,† Jawaharlal N ehru said in the Lok Sabha on June 26 and August 7, 1952. Selected works of Jawaharlal Nehru, Vol. 18, p. 418 and vol. 19 pp. 295-6, respectively. â€Å"From 1953 to 1975, Chief Ministers of that State had been nominees of Delhi. Their appointment to that post was legitimised by the holding of farcical and totally rigged elections in which the Congress party led by Delhi's nominee was elected by huge majorities. † – This authoritative description of a blot on our record which most overlook was written by B. K. Nehru, who was Governor of Kashmir from 1981 to 1984, in his memoirs published in 1997 (Nice Guys Finish Second; pp. 14-5). THOSE who cavil at Article 370 of the Indian Constitution and the â€Å"special status† of Kashmir constitutionally ought to remember the â€Å"special† treatment meted out to it politically. Which other State has been subjected to such debasement an d humiliation? And, why was this done? It was because New Delhi had second thoughts on Article 370. It could not be abrogated legally. It was reduced to a husk through political fraud and constitutional abuse. The current debate is much more than about restoration of Article 370 by erasing the distortions. It is about redressing a moral wrong. The United Front government's minimum programme, published on June 5, 1996, said â€Å"respecting Article 370 of the Constitution as well as the wishes of the people, the problems of Jammu and Kashmir will be resolved through giving the people of that State t he maximum degree of autonomy. † Constitutional abuse accompanied political fraud. Article 370 was intended to guarantee Kashmir's autonomy. On December 4, 1964, Union Home Minister G. L. Nanda said it would be used to serve as â€Å"a tunnel (sic. in the wall† in order to increase the Cent re's power. The State was put in a status inferior to that of other States. One illustration suffices to demonstrate that. Parliament had to amend the Constitution four times, by means of the 59th, 64th, 67th and 68th Constitution Amendments, to extend the President's Rule imposed in Punjab on May 11, 1987. For the State of Jammu and Kashmir the same result was accomplished, from 1990 to 199 6, by mere executive orders under Article 370. Another gross case illustrates the capacity for abuse. On July 30, 1986, the President made an order under Article 370, extending to Kashmir Article 249 of the Constitution in order to empower Parliament to legislate even on a matter in the State List on the strength of a Rajya Sabha resolution. â€Å"Concurrence† to this was given by the Centre's own appointee, Governor Jagmohan. G. A. Lone, a former Secretary, Law and Parliamentary Affairs, to the State Government described in Kashmir Times (April 20 , 1995) how the â€Å"manipulation† was done â€Å"in a single day† against the Law Secretary's advice and â€Å"in the absence of a Council of Ministers. The Nehru-Abdullah Agreement in July 1952 (â€Å"the Delhi Agreement†) confirmed that â€Å"the residuary powers of legislation† (on matters not mentioned in the State List or the Concurrent List), which Article 248 and Entry 97 (Union List) confer on the Union, w ill not apply to Kashmir. The order of 1986 purported to apply to the State Article 249, which empowers Parliament to legislate even on a matter in the State List if a Rajya Sabha resolution so authorises it by a two-thirds vote. But it so amended Article 249 in its application to Kashmir as in effect to apply Article 248 instead – â€Å"any matter specified in the resolution, being a matter which is not enumerated in the Union List or in the Concurrent List. † The Union thus acquired the power to legislate not only on all matters in the State List, but others not mentioned in the Union List or the Concurrent List – the residuary power. In relation to other States, an amendment to the Constitution would require a two-thirds vote by both Houses of Parliament plus ratification by the States (Article 368). For Kashmir, executive orders have sufficed since 1953 and can continue till Doomsday. â€Å"Nowhere else, as far as I can see, is there any provision author ising the executive government to make amendments in the Constitution,† President Rajendra Prasad pointed out to Prime Minister Nehru on September 6, 1952. Nowhere else, in the world, indeed. Is this the state of things we wish to perpetuate? Uniquely Ka shmir negotiated the terms of its membership of the Union for five months. Article 370 was adopted by the Constituent Assembly as a result of those parleys. YET, all hell broke loose when the State Assembly adopted, on June 26, a resolution recording its acceptance of the report of the State Autonomy Committee (the Report) and asked â€Å"the Union Government and the Government of Jammu and Kashmir to take positi ve and effective steps for the implementation of the same. † On July 4, the Union Cabinet said that the resolution was â€Å"unacceptable†¦ would set the clock back and reverse the natural process of harmonising the aspirations of the people of Jammu & Kashmi r with the integrity of the State† – a patent falsehood, as everyone knows. The State's Law Minister, P. L. Handoo, said on June 26 that the people â€Å"want nothing more than what they had in 1953. † Overworked metaphors (about the clock or the waters of the Jhelum which flowed since) do not answer two crucial questions: Can lapse of time sanctify patent constitutional abuse? Can it supply legislative competence? If Parliament has legislated over the States on a matter on which it had no power to legislate, under the Constitution, it would be a nullity. Especially if the State's people have been protesting meanwhile and their voice was stifled through rigged elections. Disapproval of Chief Minister Farooq Abdullah's opportunist politics should not blind one to the constitutional issues. The State's Finance Minister, Abdul Rahim Rather, a moving spirit behind the Report, resents suggestions of political timing. The repo rt was placed before the Assembly on April 13, 1999. The State Cabinet endorsed its recommendations and decided last April to convene a special session of the Assembly to discuss it. The Government of India was â€Å"once again requested to set up a ministeri al committee in order to initiate a dialogue on the report. â€Å" It provides a comprehensive survey of constitutional developments, which is useful in itself for its documentation. It lists 42 orders under Article 370 and gives the following opinion: â€Å"Not all these orders can be objected to. For instance, none can obj ect to provisions for direct elections to Parliament in 1966†¦ It is the principle that matters. Constitutional limits are there to be respected, not violated. † The ruler of Jammu and Kashmir acceded to India by an Instrument of Accession on October 26, 1947 in respect of only three subjects – defence, foreign affairs and communications. A schedule listed precisely 16 topics under these heads plus four others (e lections to Union legislature and the like). Clause 5 said that the Instrument could not be altered without the State's consent. Clause 7 read: â€Å"Nothing in this Instrument shall be deemed to commit me in any way to acceptance of any future Constitution of India or fetter my discretion to enter into arrangements with the Government of India under any such future Constitution. † Kashmir was then governed internally by its own Constitution of 1939. The Maharaja made an Order on October 30, 1947 appointing Sheikh Abdullah the Head of the Emergency Administration, replacing it, on March 5, 1948, with an Interim Government with the Sheikh as Prime Minister. It was enjoined to convene a National Assembly â€Å"to frame a Constitution† for the State. Negotiations were held on May 15 and 16, 1949 at Vallabhbhai Patel's residence in New Delhi on Kashmir's future set-up. Nehru and Abdullah were present. Foremost among the topics were â€Å"the framing of a Constitution for the State† and â€Å"the subjects in res pect of which the State should accede to the Union of India. On the first, Nehru recorded in a letter to the Sheikh (on May 18) that both Patel and he agreed that it was a matter for the State's Constituent Assembly. â€Å"In regard to (ii) the Jammu and Kas hmir State now stands acceded to the Indian Union in respect of three subjects; namely, foreign affairs, defence and communications. It will be for the Con stituent Assembly of the State when convened, to determine in respect of which other subjects the State may accede† (emphasis added, throughout). Article 370 embodies this basic principle which was reiterated throughout (S. W. J. N. Vol. 11; p. 12). On June 16, 1949, Sheikh Abdullah, Mirza Mammad Afzal Beg, Maulana Mohammed Saeed Masoodi and Moti Ram Bagda joined the Constituent Assembly of India. Negotiations began in earnest on Article 370 (Article 306. A in the draft). N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar tri ed to reconcile the differences between Patel and Abdullah. A text, agreed on October 16, was moved in the Constituent Assembly the next day, unilaterally altered by Ayyangar. A trivial change,† as he admitted in a letter to the Sheikh on October 18. Pa tel confirmed it to Nehru on November 3 on his return from the United States. Beg had withdrawn his amendment after the accord. Abdullah and he were in the lobby, and rushed to the House when they learnt of the change. In its original form the draft woul d have made the Sheikh's ouster in 1953 impossible. ARTICLE 370 embodies six special provisions for Jammu and Kashmir. First , it exempted the State from the provisions of the Constitution providing for the governance of the States. Jammu and Kashmir was allowed to have its own Constitution within the Indi an Union. Second, Parliament's legislative power over the State was restricted to three subjects – defence, external affairs and communications. The President could extend to it other provisions of the Constitution to provide a constitutional framework if they related to the matters specified in the Instrument of Accession. For this, only â€Å"consultation† with the State government was required since the State had already accepted them by the Instrument. But, third, if other â€Å"constitutional† provisions or other Union powers were to be extended to Kashmir, the prior â€Å"concurrence† of the State government was required. The fourth feature is that that concurrence was provisional. It had to be ratified by the State's Constituent Assembly. Article 370(2) says clearly: â€Å"If the concurrence of the Government of the State†¦ be given before the Constituent Assembly for the pu rpose of framing the Constitution of the State is convened, it shall be placed before such Assembly for such decision as it may take thereon. â€Å" The fifth feature is that the State government's authority to give the â€Å"concurrence† lasts only till the State's Constituent Assembly is â€Å"convened†. It is an â€Å"interim† power. Once the Constituent Assembly met, the State government could not give its own â€Å"concurrence†. Still less, after the Assembly met and dispersed. Moreover, the President cannot exercise his power to extend the Indian Constitution to Kashmir indefinitely. The power has to stop at the point the State's Constituent Assembly draft ed the State's Constitution and decided finally what additional subjects to confer on the Union, and what other rovisions of the Constitution of India it should get extended to the State, rather than having their counterparts embodied in the State Const itution itself. Once the State's Constituent Assembly had finalised the scheme and dispersed, the President's extending powers ended completely. The sixth special feature, the last step in the p rocess, is that Article 370(3) empowers the President to make an Order abrogating or amending it. But for this also â€Å"the recommendation† of the State's Constituent Assembly â€Å"shall be necessary before the President issues such a notification†. Article 370 cannot be abrogated or amended by recourse to the amending provisions of the Constitution which apply to all the other States; namely, Article 368. For, in relation to Kashmir, Article 368 has a proviso which says that no constitutional amend ment â€Å"shall have effect in relation to the State of Jammu and Kashmir† unless applied by Order of the President under Article 370. That requires the concurrence of the State's government and ratification by its Constituent Assembly. Jammu and Kashmir is mentioned among the States of the Union in the First Schedule as Article 1 (2) requires. But Article 370 (1) (c) says: â€Å"The provisions of Article 1 and of this Article shall apply in relation to that State†. Article 1 is thus appl ied to the State through Article 370. What would be the effect of its abrogation, as the Bharatiya Janata Party demands? Ayyangar's exposition of Article 370 in the Constituent Assembly on October 17, 1949 is authoritative. â€Å"We have also agreed that the will of the people through the instrument of the Constituent Assembly will determine the Constitution of the State as wel l as the sphere of Union jurisdiction over the State†¦ You will remember that several of these clauses provide for the concurrence of the Government of Jammu and Kashmir State. Now, these relate particularly to matters which are not mentioned in the Ins trument of Accession, and it is one of our commitments to the people and Government of Kashmir that no such additions should be made except with the consent of the Constituent Assembly which may be called in the State for the purpose of framing its Co nstitution. â€Å" Ayyangar explained that â€Å"the provision is made that when the Constituent Assembly of the State has met and taken its decision both on the Constitution for the State and on the range of federal jurisdiction over the State, the President may, on the recomm endation of that Constituent Assembly, issue an Order that this Article 306 (370 in the draft) shall either cease to be operative, or shall be operative only subject to such exceptions and modifications as may be specified by him. But before he issued an y order of that kind, the recommendation of the Constituent Assembly will be a condition precedent. THE HINDU PHOTO LIBRARY Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru with Sheikh Abdullah. This unique process of Presidential Orders altering constitutional provisions by a mere executive order ends with the final decision of the State's Constituent Assembly. Ayyangar repeatedly said that the State government's concurrence alone will not do. â€Å"That concurrence should be placed before th e Constituent Assembly when it meets and the Constituent Assembly may take whatever decisions it likes on those matters. † (Constituent Assembly Debates; Vol. 8; pp. 424-427). In 1949, no one knew when Kashmir's Constituent Assembly would be elected. Ayyangar therefore said: â€Å"The idea is that even before the Constituent Assembly meets, it may be necessary†¦ that certain items which are not included in the Instrument of Access ion would be appropriately added to that list in the Instrument†¦ and as this may happen before the Constituent Assembly meets, the only authority from whom we can get consent for the addition is the Government of the State. † This was explicitly only for that interim period. Article 370 (1) (b) is clear. The power of Parliament to make laws for the said State shall be limited to† (1) matters in the Union and Concurrent Lists corresponding to the broad heads specified in the Instrument of Accession â€Å"and (ii) such other matte rs in the said Lists as, with the concurrence of the Government of the State the President may by Order specify†. An Explanation defined â€Å"the Government of the Stateâ € . Similar â€Å"concurrence† was required when extending provisions regarding Union instituti ons beyond the agreed ones. But Article 370 (2) stipulated clearly that if that concurrence is given â€Å"before the Constituent Assembly†¦ s convened, it shall be placed before such Assembly for such decision as it may take thereon†. Once Kashmir's Constituent Assembly was â€Å"convened† on November 5, 1951, the State Government lost all authority to accord its â€Å"concurrence† to the Union. With the Assembly's dispersal on November 17, 1956, after adopting the Constitution of Jammu and Kas hmir, vanished the only authority which alone could cede: (a) more powers to the Union and (b) accept Union institutions other than those specified in the Instrument of Accession. All additions to Union powers since then are unconstitutional. This unders tanding informed decisions – right until 1957. THE Constituent Assembly of India adopted the Constitution on November 26, 1949. A day earlier, the ruler of Kashmir made a Proclamation declaring that it â€Å"shall in so far as it is applicable to the State of Jammu and Kashmir, govern the constitutional r elationships between this State and the contemplated Union of India†. Article 370 is more than a provision of that solemn document. It is also a sacred compact with the State. On January 26, 1950, the President made his first Order under Article 370, extending specified provisions of the new Constitution to the State. On April 20, 1951, the ruler made a Proclamation for convening the State's Constituent Assembly. It met on November 5, 1951. Two issues came to the fore. Nehru was eager to secure Kashmir's â€Å"closer integration† with India; the Sheikh to ensure popular go vernance. The Delhi Agreement that followed was announced at a press conference in Delhi on July 24, 1952 by both. This Union-Centre accord had no legal force by itself. Only an Order under Article 370 could confer that – after the Sheikh gave his â€Å"concu rrence† formally. The Sheikh, meanwhile, pressed for an Order to redraft â€Å"the Explanation† in Article 370 redefining the State government as one headed by an elected â€Å"Sadar-i-Riyasat (State President)†¦ acting on the advice† of his Ministers. As for the Sheikh's request, Nehru wrote on July 29, 1952: â€Å"It is not a perfectly clear matter from the legal point of view how far the President can issue notifications under Article 370 several times. † On September 6, 1952, President Rajendra Prasad po inted out the illegality of such a course in a closely reasoned Note. (It is appended to the Report. He questioned â€Å"the competence of the President to have repeated recourse to the extraordinary powers conferred on him† by Article 370. â€Å"Any provi sion authorising the executive government to make amendments in the Constitution† was an incongruity. He endorsed Ayyangar's views on the finality of a single Order under Article 370. â€Å"I have little doubt myself that the intention is that the power is to be exercised only once, for then alone would it be possible to determine with precision which particular provisions should be excepted and which modified. The President concluded: â€Å"The conclusion, therefore, seems to me to be irresistible that Clause (3) of Article 370 was not intended to be used from time to time as occasion required. Nor was it intended to be used without any limit as to time. The correc t view appears to be that recourse is to be had to this clause only when the Constituent Assembly (sic) (Constitution) of the State has been fully framed. † That was over on November 17, 1956. But he yielded to Nehru's pressure and made the Order on Novem ber 15, 1952. Events took a tragic course. The Sheikh was dismissed from office and imprisoned on August 9, 1953 (vide the writer's article, How and Why Nehru and Abdullah Fell Out†: Economic and Political Weekly; January 30, 1999). On May 14, 1954 came a compr ehensive Presidential Order under Article 370. Although it was purported to have been made with the â€Å"concurrence† of the State government it drew validity from a resolution of the Constituent Assembly on February 15, 1954 which approved extension to the State of some provisions of the Constitution of India. The Order sought to implement the Delhi Agreement. The Report makes two valid points. Why the haste since the State's Constitution was yet to be framed? Besides, the order in some respects went beyon d the Delhi Agreement. It certainly paved the way for more such Orders – all with â€Å"the concurrence of the State Government†, each elected moreover in a rigged poll. Ninetyfour of the 97 Entries in the Union List and 26 of the 47 in the Concurrent List were extended to Kashmir as were 260 of the 395 Articles of the Constitution. Worse, the State's Constitution was overridden by the Centre's orders. Its basic structure was altered. The head of State elected by the State legislature was replaced by a Governor nominated by the Centre. Article 356 (imposition of President's Rule) wa s applied despite provision in the State's Constitution for Governor's rule (Section 92). This was done on November 21, 1964. On November 24, 1966, the Governor replaced the Sadar-i-Riyasat after the State's Constitution had been amended on April 10, 1965 by the 6th Amendment in violation of Section 147 of the Constitution. Section 147 makes itself immune to amendment. But it referred to the Sadar-i-Riyasat and required his assent to constitutional amendments. He was elected by the Assembly [Section 27 (2)]. To replace him by the Centre's nominee was to alter the basic structure. Article 370 was used freely not only to amend the Constitution of India but also of the State. On July 23, 1975 an Order was made debarring the State legislature from amending the State Constitution on matters in respect of the Governor, the Election Co mmission and even â€Å"the composition† of the Upper House, the Legislative Council. It would be legitimate to ask how all this could pass muster when there existed a Supreme Court of India. Three cases it decided tell a sorry tale. In Prem Nath Kaul vs State of J, decided in 1959, a Constitution Bench consisting of five judges unanimously held that Article 370 (2) â€Å"shows that the Constitution-makers attached great importance to the final decision of the Constituent Assembly, and the continuance of the exercise of powers conferred on the Parliament and the President by t he relevant temporary provision of Article 370 (1) is made conditional on the final approval by the said Constituent Assembly in the said matters†. It referred to Clause 3 and said that â€Å"the proviso to Clause (3) also emphasises the importance whi ch was attached to the final decision of Constituent Assembly of Kashmir in regard to the relevant matters covered by Article 370†. The court ruled that â€Å"the Constitution-makers were obviously anxious that the said relationship should be finally d etermined by the Constituent Assembly of the State itself. † But, in 1968, in Sampat Prakash vs the State of J, another Bench ruled to the contrary without even referring to the 1959 case. Justice M. Hidayatullah sat on both Benches. The court held that Article 370 can still be used to make orders thereunder despite the fact that the State's Constituent Assembly had ceased to exist. FOUR BASIC flaws stand out in the judgment. †¢First, the Attorney-General cited Ayyangar's speech only on the India-Pakistan war of 1947, the entanglement with the United Nations and the conditions in the State. On this basis, the court said, in 1968, that â€Å"the situation that existed when this Article was incorporated in the Constitution has not materially altered,† 21 years later. It ignored completely Ayyangar's exposition of Article 370 itself; fundamentally, that the Constituent Assembly of Kashmir al one had the final say. †¢Secondly, it brushed aside Article 370 (2) which lays down this condition, and said that it spoke of â€Å"concurrence given by the Government of State before the Constituent Assembly was convened and makes no mention at all of the completion† of its work or its dissolution. The supreme power of the State's Constituent Assembly to ratify any change, or refuse to do so, was clearly indicated. Clause (3) on the cessation of Article 370 makes it clearer still. But the court picked on this clause to hold that since the Assembly had made no recommendation that Article 370 be abrogated, it should continue. It, surely, does not follow that after that body dispersed the Union acquired the power to amass powers by invoking Article 370 when the decisive ratificatory body was gone. †¢ Thirdly, the Supreme Court totally overlooked the fact that on its interpretation, Article 370 can be abused by collusive State and Central Governments to override the State's Constitution and reduce the guarantees to naught. Lastly, the court misconstru ed the State Constituent Assembly's recommendation of November 17, 1952, referred to earlier, which merely defined in an explanation â€Å"the Government of the State†. To the court this meant that the Assembly had â€Å"expressed its agreement to the continued op eration of this Article by making a recommendation that it should be operative with this modification only. † It had in fact made no such recommendation. The Explanation said no more than that â€Å"for the purposes of this Article, the Government of the State means†¦ It does not, and indeed, cannot remove the limitations on the Central Government's power to concurrence imposed by Clause (2); namely ratification by the Constituent Assembly. The court laid down no limit whatever whether as regards the time or the content. â€Å"We must give the widest effect to the meaning of the word ‘modification' used in Article 370 (1)†. The net result of this ruling was to gi ve a carte blanche to the Government of India to extend to Kashmir such of the provisions of the Constitution of India as it pleased. In 1972, in Mohammed Maqbool Damnoo vs the State of J & K, another Bench blew sky high the tortuous meaning given to the Explanation. It was a definition which had become â€Å"otiose†. But this Bench also did not refer to the 1959 ruling. Cases there are, albeit rare, when courts have overlooked a precedent. But that is when there is a plethora of them. Article 370 gave rise only to three cases. The first was studiously ignored in both that followed. The court found no difference between an elected S adar and an appointed Governor. There is no question of such a change being one in the character of that government from a democratic to a non-democratic system. † If the Constitution of India is amended to empower the Prime Minister to nominate the Pres ident as Sri Lanka's 1972 Constitution did – would it make no difference to its democratic character, pray? To this Bench â€Å"the essential feature† of Article 370 (1) (b) and (d) is â€Å"the necessity of the concurrence of the State Government†, not the Consti tuent Assembly. This case was decided before the Supreme Court formulated in 1973 the doctrine of the unamendable basic structure of the Constitution. GIVEN their record, whenever Kashmir is involved, how can anyone ask Kashmiris to welcome Union institutions (such as the Election Commission) with warmth? Sheikh Abdullah had no cards to play when he concluded an Accord with Indira Gandhi and became Chief Minister on February 24, 1975. At the outset, on August 23, 1974, he had written to G. Parthasarathy: â€Å"I hope that I have made it abundantly clear to you that I can assume office only on the basis of the position as it existed on August 8, 1953. † Judgment on the changes since â€Å"will be deferred until the newly elected Assembly comes into being†. On November 13, 1974, G. P. and M. A. Beg signed â€Å"agreed concl usions† – Article 370 remained; so did the residuary powers of legislation (except in regard to anti-national acts); Constitutional provisions extended with changes can be â€Å"altered or repealed†; the State could review Central laws on specified topics (we lfare, culture, and so on) counting on the Centre's â€Å"sympathetic consideration†; a new bar on amendment to the State Constitution regarding the Governor and the E. C. Differences on â€Å"nomenclature† of the Governor and Chief Minister were â€Å"remitted to the p rincipals†. Differences persisted on the E. C. , Article 356 and other points. On November 25, the Sheikh sought a meeting with Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. Her reply not only expressed doubt on the usefulness of talks but also on his commitment to â€Å"the b asic features of the State's Constitution† and to â€Å"the democratic functioning† of the government. Hurt, he wrote back ending the parleys. They met at Pahalgam. An exchange of letters, on February 12, 1975, clinched the deal on the basis of the Agreed Con clusions. This was a political accord between an individual, however eminent, and the Government, like the Punjab Accord (July 24, 1985); the Assam Accord (August 15, 1985); the Nagaland Accord (November 11, 1975); and the Mizoram Accord (June 30, 1986) – e ach between the government and the opposition. It cannot override Article 370; still less sanctify Constitutional abuse. It bound the Sheikh alone and only until 1977. This was explicitly an accord on â€Å"political cooperation between us†, as Indira Gandhi wrote (December 16, 1974). On February 12, 1975, Abdullah recorded that it provided â€Å"a good basis for my cooperation at the political level†. In Parliament on March 3, 1975 she called it a â€Å"new political understanding†. He was made Chief Minister on February 24, backed by the Congress' majority in the Assembly and on the understanding of a fresh election soon. Sheikh Abdullah's memoirs Aatish-e-Chinar (Urdu) rec ord her backtracking on the pledge and the Congress' perfidy in March 1977 when she lost the Lok Sabha elections. It withdrew support and staked a claim to form a government. Governor's Rule was imposed. The Sheikh's National Conference won the elections with a resounding majority on the pledge to restore Jammu and Kashmir's autonomy, which was also Farooq's pledge in 1996. The 1975 accord had collapsed. It was, I can reveal, based on gross error. The Agreed Conclusions said (Para 3): â€Å"But provisions of the Constitution already applied to the State of J&K without adaptation or modification are unalterable. † This preposterous assertion was made in the tee th of the Sampat Prakash case. One order can always be rescinded by another. All the orders since 1954 can be revoked; they are a nullity anyway. Beg was precariously ill and relied on advice which GP's â€Å"expert† had given him. He was one S. Balakr ishnan whom R. Venkataraman refers to as â€Å"Constitutional Adviser in the Home Ministry† in his memoirs. It is no disrespect to point out that issues of such complexity and consequence are for counsel's opinion; not from a solicitor, still less a bureaucrat even if he had read the law. Even the Law Secretary would have insisted on the Attorney-General's opinion. Amazed at what Beg had told me in May 1975, I pursued the matter and eventually met Balakrishnan in 1987. He confirmed that he had, indeed, given

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Scanning the Environment DB - Essay Example However, people may typically not want to compromise too much on cost for food items. These socio-economic trends in population has resulted in Aldi's strategy for high quality and low cost food products. The amount of television and internet advertisements for their respective products from Amazon and Aldi's will be a part of the marketing strategy of these companies. The target customer segments, their demographics and behavioral trends will determine the mode and volume of television and internet advertisements. It can be observed that the people having obesity problems tend to live a sedentary lifestyle with more number of hours in front of televisions or computers. No such observation can be made for target customers for high quality foods. Hence, in case of Amazon the amount of television and internet advertisements will be more as compared to Aldi's. While both, Amazon and Aldi's may have their advantages and disadvantages, considering their strategies, Amazon seems to be better positioned than Aldi's. The main reason for this being focused on a particular target customer segment i.e.

Statistics homeless people Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Statistics homeless people - Essay Example Number of Homeless Households Figure 1 below shows the evolution of the number of homeless households from 2002 to 2010. While the number of homeless households increased from 2002 to 2004, it reduced continuously from 2004 to 2009, and in 2010 again, there was a slight increase in the number of homeless households. Figure 1 Number of Homeless Households in Wales The maximum number of homeless households was 9855 households in 2004. From 2004 to 2009, homelessness decreased at an average of nearly 11% per year and in 2010, the increase in homeless households was just over 12%. The average number of homeless households from 2002 to 2010 was 7182 households. Clearly, this shows that the efforts of the Welsh Government have been successful in their commitment for controlling homelessness and supporting homeless people. Reasons for Homelessness In order to succeed in their aim to reduce and eventually eradicate homelessness, the Welsh Government also studies the reasons why people/househ olds become homeless. Figure 2 below shows the break-up of these reasons. Figure 2 Reasons for Homelessness in Wales in 2010 Figure 2 shows that the biggest reason, which accounts for 20% of homelessness in Wales in 2010, is the loss of tied accommodation which may be due to disasters like fire or for other social/financial reasons. If we combine this with the factor of loss of rented or tied institution or care centre which accounts for 16% of the homelessness, we see that just over 1/3rd, that is 36% of homelessness is caused by loss of rented/tied accommodation or institutions. The next biggest reason is the inability or unwillingness of parents to accommodate which accounts for 19% of homelessness. However, if we combine this statistic with homelessness due to inability or unwillingness of other relatives or friends which accounts for 8% of homelessness, we see that 27% of all homelessness is caused by social exclusion of homeless people by their parents/relatives/friends. Broad ly speaking, the categories of reasons for homelessness may be divided into two parts: financial reasons and social reasons. Financial reasons include loss of rented/tied accommodation, mortgage arrears, and rent arrears. The financial reasons together are responsible for 42% of all homelessness. The social reasons include inability or unwillingness of parents/relatives/friends, break-up with partner and violence or harassment. The social reasons are responsible for 47% of all homelessness. In fact, a lot of social reasons also arise out of financial difficulties like the inability of parents to support. Economy and Homelessness As we have seen that 42% of homelessness is caused by purely financial reasons and some of the social reasons are also due to financial troubles, we now take a look at how homelessness varies with the economic output. For the economic output, we consider the data for Gross Value Added (GVA) for Wales. According to the statistics bureau of the Welsh Governmen t, the GVA can be considered as a close substitute for Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the measure of economic output. Figure 3 below shows the relationship between actual GVA and the number of homeless households for different years. The data points shown in figure 3 are the values of GVA and number of homeless households in Wales from 2002 to 2009. The line has been drawn to show the approximate trend in the data points. Figure 3 GVA and homelessness in Wales for

Solomon's book presents different proofs for the existence of God Term Paper

Solomon's book presents different proofs for the existence of God. Discuss the one that you think is most persuasive, and comp - Term Paper Example All three major religions Judaism, Christianity, and Islam share a similar view about God’s existence which is that there is only one God or supreme force in the world. The Greek and Roman gods and goddesses, on the other hand, had some great supernatural powers but they also often behaved like average humans in reference to how they got vengeful when denied something or acted unimpressively at times. In this paper, I will focus on one proof for the existence of God in particular that I consider most persuasive and then compare it to others which do not seem as powerful and appealing as the one discussed at length. There is no scientific evidence supporting the existence of God, so the only notions supporting this idea are related to manmade explanations like there has to some force starting the universe which is so perfect that no human can be held responsible for it. Also, we have to believe in God as suggested by the biblical teachings because of this faith that there is a supernatural power which is omnipotent. There is no concrete evidence really which could either prove or disprove the existence of God, but it is still healthy to accept by faith this existence as without it people would consider themselves free to act in whichever way they like without the fear of facing results at the end like in the form of Day of Judgment of afterlife. According to the Bible, people have to judge from things around them if God exists or not and there is plenty of evidence, not concrete but symbolic, which speaks of God’s presence like the skies and the sun which are so perfect and identify the g lory of God. All the mystic and enthralling wonders of nature point to God’s presence denying which is plain adamancy. Pascal’s proof for God’s existence is a different kind of argument in itself and differs from the explanation provided by Christianity and Islam on multiple levels. While the Bible and Qur’an stress that there is no option but to believe that God exists because of many stupendous works of nature, Pascal argues that believing in God irrespective of whether he exists or not exists is a win-win situation. The tendency of not agreeing to God’s existence, in contrast, is prone to many losses. This is because if we believe in God and he actually does exist, then there is no doubt that we will be rewarded and if we believe so and he does not exist actually, even then it is beneficial because people tend to give up many sinful pleasures in respect of this belief that God exists. Many great scientists like Freud plainly refuse the idea of G od’s existence characterizing it as very irrational. Freud does not believe thinking irrationally in terms of God is actually a bad thing and if not believing in God is irrational, then believing in God is also irrational. This is because irrationality is only defying what cannot be considered rational and second, it is also about believing in what cannot be proved. Freud characterized the existence of God to be harmful in certain instances especially when people tend to rationalize their evil actions by believing they were intended by God to happen or he would have stopped them. So, the proof for the existence of God really comes down to the marvels of nature and a person’s innate disposition to believe in God. In conclusion, not every proof for believing in God identified by Islam, Judaism, and Christianity is rational because

Critical Analysis of a Film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Critical Analysis of a Film - Essay Example ted nuclear warfare against Russia through a fleet of B-52 bombers each carrying 40 megatons of nuclear warheads directed strategically to Russia’s centers of military activity. The plot thickens as Russian Ambassador Alexi de Sadesky informs U.S. President Merkin Muffley that his country has the Doomsday Device that when triggered would produce a set of nuclear explosions that will eventually lead to the annihilation of all living creatures on earth. Even more alarming is the fact that the device, once triggered, cannot be recalled. The intense subject of the film, especially at a time right after the Cold War, was treated in a different light by its director. No one would have probably expected a political about this topic but this was exactly what Kubrick did. The film shows, in all its legitimate comedic value, the political and social stereotypes that would prevail as a matter of human nature and despite surrounding circumstances. The juxtaposition in the film is an important element to consider in its overall theme. The catchphrase â€Å"Peace is our Profession† is a re-appearing visual that comes out a number of times. In the opening scenes, the audience sees Gen. Ripper on the phone with Group Capt. Lionel Mandrake giving the instructions to implement Plan R and that his order is not a drill. We see him serious on the phone and smoking a cigar intently. On his back is a poster with the phrase and an illustration inside a plaque shape with a clenched fist holding thunderbolts and leaves together with clouds on the background. The same words were not seen immediately on Capt. Mandrake’s background. But as soon as Gen. Ripper can be heard signaling Plan R, the camera changes angles and one can see on his side the same phrase but on a different poster. Instead of the clenched fist, the phrase is unassumingly placed on top of a map with different coordinates around it. This is shown to create the contrast between upholding of peace and starting a war. In

Popular culture in society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Popular culture in society - Essay Example Popular culture is necessary in the society (Gans 1999, p197). The importance of a popular culture should be looked in terms of what it means to the society. It has commercial, social, educational and economic importance to a society (Fedorak 2009, p95). The commercial benefits of the popular culture are enormous. This is because popular culture affects the fashion, movie industries and the styles of people. This is most profound among the youths. For instance, youths like wearing what is trending in the market. This way they feel relevant and accepted in the main stream society (Fedorak 2009, p55). Popular culture causes designers to come up with products that will impress the youths. This has caused some fashion and design industries to make massive profits (Gans 1999, p197). The nature of popular culture is that it keeps on changing, (Gans, 1999, p197). This means that it the designers have to dictate the pace of the products so that they can remain relevant. Some industries have ridden along the wave of popular culture to get developed and get established e.g. the movie industry. Some of the products that are significantly influenced by the popular culture are music, shoes and clothes (Fedorak 2009, p54). There are brands that a re released specifically for a certain season. This has also attracted job creation as many people get absorbed in such industries. Therefore, with regard to business and entrepreneurship, popular culture can impact the society positively (Gans 1999, p197). Most of the designs under the popular culture are not inspired by rationale or decency (Gans 1999, p17). Most of them are bent on what the people want, especially the youths. This has earned the popular culture a lot of criticism especially from the religious quarters (Fedorak 2009, p95). This is because it is seen as a threat to the conservative values and convictions. The nature of the popular culture is that it keeps on evolving, and

Quantitative Applications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Quantitative Applications - Essay Example (c) A project plan was constructed and the network was designed for designing, writing and installing a bespoke computer database. The critical path and the shortest time to completion is identified as follows: = Contract negotiation User discussions Review current system Systems analysis (a) Systems analysis (b) Programming Preliminary testing Documentation preparation Implementation Debugging Manual. (d) This project can be controlled by monitoring and controlling the critical activities and reducing lead time on the other activities which do not contribute towards the critical path. The important activities that need monitoring and control may be the Systems analysis, programming, testing, documentation, implementation and debugging. (a) The main advantages of holding an inventory are that losses due to unexpected changes in demand and deliveries from suppliers can be avoided and it is a safety net against backorders. The main disadvantages of holding inventory are the increased holding costs incurred due to higher rental value of the space occupied, higher premiums, the danger of the inventory losing its value or becoming obsolete and the loss of money in opportunity costs. The assumptions made are that the demand rate is known and it is uniform (constant), the ordering cost is constant, quantity discounts do not exist, the production rate is infinite (with no shortages) and the order is received immediately after placing the order. The formula for a simple demand model for the EOQ (Economic Order Quantity) is now given below: Economic Order Quantity, Q = Where, C = fixed cost per order (not per unit, in addition to unit cost) D = annual demand quantity of the product H = annual holding cost per unit (also known as carrying cost) (c) Unit cost = 80 Annual holding cost per unit = 20% per year = 0.20 * 80 = 16 Holding cost per unit per month = 1.33 Fixed cost per order = 140 Demand = 700 /month Therefore, EOQ, Q = 384 units/order (d) If the supplier offers a 5% discount on the product cost if ordered in lots of 1200 units or more, then the advice to the manager is to place the orders once every four months. QUESTION 3 (a) A diagram of a simple and basic EBQ model is shown below (production and consumption model). The assumption here is that rather than the lot arriving instantaneously, the lot is assumed to arrive continuously at a production rate K. This situation arises when a production process feeds the inventory and the process operates at the rate K greater than the demand rate D. According to this model, the Economic Batch Quantity (EBQ), or the Economic Production Quantity (EPQ) is given by Where, K = Setup cost D = Demand rate F = holding cost P = production rate (b) Unit cost of a thermostat = 25 Demand per annum, D = 4000 Production Rate, P = 200 per week = 10400 per annum Setup costs, K = 240 /setup Inventory Holding costs, F = 17.5% of

SOC 331 week 5 discussions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

SOC 331 week 5 discussions - Essay Example Application of an umbrella cover of distributive justice is seen to be in violation of certain clauses of the constitution like the eighth amendment, which prohibits cruel and unusual punishment (Dreisbach, 2013). Drawing inference from the case of Miller v. Alabama, the application of retributive justice demanded the Miller, a fourteen year old boy be tried with the charges of arson and capital crime in the same capacity as an adult. The application of retributive justice does not consider an individuals mental status when committing a crime, thus proposes a blanket cover with which justice is administered equally for equal crime. Application of a mandatory life without parole that is applicable in distributive justice can thus be said to be unjust, as it does not give opportunity for the offender to be cross-examined to ascertain the real intentions of committing a crime (Dreisbach, 2013). According to the constitution, application of retributive justice is significant as it is based on ensuring that commitment of crimes of the same nature like the one that attracted a capital punishment will prevent commitment of future crimes by the potential offenders. Severe punishment acts as psychological negative stimulant to avoidance of the crime. Nevertheless, application of retributive justice will infringe the rights of the citizens especially the juvenile who are life sentenced without parole. These persons will be denied an opportunity for proper development. Application of retributive justice can be just or unjust depending on the situation when the justice is administered. Taking the situation of Karla Faye Tucker, corrective justice as an alternative theory to retributive justice demands that there should be fair compensation to the offender and the victim of a crime without gain for either side. Nevertheless, the victim of Karla had died and could not be compensated. In this regard, corrective justice requires correctional measures to be taken

Finance (Analysis) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Finance (Analysis) - Essay Example However using discounted payback period, the company would be able to recover its initial outflow of the project in 3.47 years. The discounted payback period gives more accurate picture of the project feasibility because it takes present value of the future cash inflows (Trahan, and Gitman, 1995). Considering the investment required, the project should be accepted using the payback period technique. Net Present Value The Net present value of the project is $71,467,984. The value shows the difference between the initial outflow and present value of future cash inflow (Shapiro, 1978). Therefore, the management should undertake the project as the NPV is positive and very high so the project would increase the profitability of the company. Internal Rate of Return Internal Rate of Return of the project is calculated as 25%. This is the rate at which the net present value of all future inflows would be equal to the initial outflow of the project. It means the project is beneficial for the company because IRR is greater than the cost of capital which is 10% and therefore the project should be accepted. ... Modified Internal Rate of Return The MIRR gives more accurate and realistic picture of the cost and profitability of the project because this technique assumes that the positive cash flows will be reinvested at cost of capital i.e. 10% in this case. The MIRR of the project is 18% which is also greater than the cost of capital. Thus, the project should be accepted. Recommendation The company should accept the project because all the project appraisal and capital budgeting techniques used to evaluate the feasibility of the project are showing positive results and therefore the project should be accepted. If company undertakes the project, it would be able to recover its initial investment in 3.47 years (inflation adjusted) which is beneficial for the company. After 3.47 years the project will give additional future cash inflows till the end of the project. NPV of the project is also favorable and is showing the healthy earning for the company. IRR and MIRR of the project are greater th an the cost of the capital and indicating positive sign for the company to undertake the project. Profitability index of the Project is greater than 1 hence also supporting the project. Thus, the project should be accepted. MODEL DESIGN REPORT The model is prepared in Excel and it has been divided into three sections which are input, calculation, and output. All the information has been included in the input section by the user. Using input, calculation has been done through formulas and commands. The calculated result is then produced in the form of output. INPUT The model allows the user to enter the information as input in the excel sheet. The input section has been divided into seven areas. The production part comprises of price of product, units of

Understand Group Dynamics Essay Example for Free

Understand Group Dynamics Essay I.Introduction To understand Organizational Behavior and Management, we must study three different levels. The first is the individual level, because every individual has its own unique perception of the world and what surrounds him. Individuals behave following how they interpret this and their environment. Each individual is different from the next one, because of its personality and characteristics. However, it’s possible to organize them by categorizing their perceptions. Categories such as Appearance, Social behavior and Status are often considered. Individual’s motivations must be analyzed to understand the next level : the Group. A Group is composed by 2 or more individuals, who come together to accomplish a particular task or goal, which is why their behavior is very important and has to be studied first. A manager leading a group will have to take into account each of the individual characteristics in order for it to work. As individuals join and create a group, shall it be a formal or informal one, we slowly change focus. The individual needs, perceptions and motivations get absorbed and the Group creates its own norms of acceptable behavior for all the individuals to follow for as long as they are part of the Group. They don’t, however, chance the individual itself when he is by himself. As Groups develop its own norms and statuses, its behavior evolves. The third level, is Organizations. That level is different from the Group one because it involves systematic efforts and organizations are engaged in the production of goods and services. It’s also different from the sum of the individuals perceptions because it can impact how individuals behave with each other, thus influencing their perception. An organization though, is comparable to an individual because each is unique and has its own culture. Moreover, if the values of the organization match the values of the individuals, they will enjoy being part of it more than if it’s not the case. The second level, Group Dynamics, is the one that will be focused on in this report. II.Group Characteristics. a)Formal and informal groups. There are different kind of groups, but they can mostly be split into two categories : Formal and Informal. Formal groups are groups officially planned and created by the organization to do a specific task. At ESSEC, we could compare them to the individuals who, in groups, did the OB presentations. They were officially planned in the course to do a presentation. In an organization, a formal group could be the Marketing (or any other) Department. In a formal group, there is a structure. Often, individuals are given specific tasks to complete within the main final task. Sometimes, there is a hierarchy and written rules. Informal groups are not official per say. They are natural social formations established by individuals rather than organizations, and unplanned. In a workplace, it could be a group of employees meeting once a month for dinner to discuss their Fishing hobby. At ESSEC, it could be an unofficial football team made especially for a tournament within the school. The purpose of an informal group can be pursuing a special interest, be social, or even just have fun. b)Group effectiveness Group dynamics concern how groups form, their structure and process, and how they function. Some groups are more successful than others. Why ? A common mistake would be to say that if your group members or employees are hard working, happy, competitive or smart, the group only can function well. But as a matter of fact, that doesn’t mean they are honest, productive, loyal or creative. However, teamwork and communication between members is capital. Managers can help increasing a work group’s performance when they create it by taking into consideration the characteristics of members they assign to particular groups. The members should have tasks assigned to them according to their domain of expertise and appropriate interpersonal skills to facilitate interaction and communication with others. Moreover, a degree of diversity among group members has shown to usually add to performance. If members are attracted to the group because they like members of the group, or the group activities/goals or just because it fills a need for affiliation, they are more likely to be productive. The size of the group also has an influence on the group’s performance. According to recent research, medium sized groups of 5 to 7 people seem to have the higher performance in organizations. If the group is smaller, there’s a chance it can highlight the individual differences and harm the group cohesiveness. If group are too large, people tend to work more by themselves (â€Å"Free riding†) rather than with the whole group, or create smaller teams within the group. c)Group norms. Norms are acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the members of the group. Norms define the limits of what is acceptable and what is not in terms of behavior. They are typically imagined in order to facilitate group survival, make behavior more predictable, avoid embarrassing situations, and express the values of the group. Each group will establish its own set of norms that may determine anything from the appropriate clothes to wear at a dinner to how many comments to make in a meeting. Groups pressure members to force them to conform to the groups standards. The norms often reflect the level of commitment, motivation, and performance of the group. The majority of the members of the group must agree that the norms are appropriate in order for the behavior to be accepted. There must also be a shared understanding that the group supports the norms. However it may happen that the norms are broken from time to time by some members. If the majority of members do not adhere to the norms anymore, then there is a chance they will eventually change and will no longer serve as a standard to study the group’s behavior. From there, group members who do not conform to the norms risk being excluded, ignored, or asked to leave the group. d)Group Roles Having a diversity of skills and ideas within a group often enriches the group process and can improve the final product. It can, however, also be seen as a challenge to work with people different from ourselves and avoid exacerbating individual characteristics. One way to structure group functioning and benefit from each other’s expertise is to assign roles to each member of the group based on individual’s strengths. It can also be a good idea to switch roles between members periodically so every member understands why those roles are important. I have found that four roles that have the potential to maximize group performance and help understanding group’s dynamics and behavior in the workplace. A group should not be composed of just those 4 people, but the others would only have tasks assigned to them. They are as follow : The first is the Leader, also called Facilitator. He’s the one who clarifies the aims of the group and helps the members set smaller tasks for themselves to work on. Leaders also make sure that all group members understand the concepts of the project and that the group’s conclusions make sense. If the group has meetings, he is the one who introduces the agenda of tasks to complete until the next meeting, mind oriented towards the final goals. Then, the Monitor, also called Arbitrator. Its key role would be to monitor carefully if the group is functioning well. Regularly, he will initiate discussions on group climate and process, especially if he senses tension or sees there could be a conflict between two or more members. During disagreements or conflicts, he will explain each sides arguments and suggests solutions to resolve the conflict. He makes sure that all group members have a chance to participate and learn from the process. There’s also the Note/Time Keeper. Note and Time Keeping are two different things, but the role could be taken by just one person. He keeps a record of what has been decided, shall it be tasks that are assigned to who or other any other information by taking notes when the group meets or when talking to group members. He makes a summary of previous discussions/decisions and makes it available for all the members to see. He also presents the group progress to the supervisor regularly to make sure the group is headed in the right direction. The Time Keeper keeps track of time during meetings to avoid spending excessive time on one topic. This is best handled by deciding how much time will be allocated to each issue in the agenda, and letting everyone know when this time is up. It is also useful to point out when time is almost up so that issues can be wrapped up appropriately. Finally, there’s the Devil’s Advocate. It’s someone who takes a position he does not necessarily agree with, for the sake of argument. In taking such position, the individual taking on the devils advocate role seeks to engage others in an argumentative discussion process. The purpose of such process is typically to test the quality of the original argument and identify weaknesses in its structure, and to use such information to either improve or abandon the original, opposing position. He must keep his or her mind open to problems, possibilities, and opposing ideas at all times. e)Group or Team ? We could say a group is just a collection of people whereas a team is that same collection of people who are working together on a common goal. Example: A group of people get in an elevator. They all have different goals and agendas for being on the elevator, they don’t even know each other, or maybe they do, it’s irrelevant. The group becomes a team when the elevator breaks down. Now they all have the same goal : figure out how to get out of the elevator. The difference between Group work and Team work can be resumed as follow. A group will focus on individual goals. Each member will produce individual work products. Individual tasks, roles and responsibilities will be assigned. Also, in a group, the manager is the one who sets up the purpose, goals, approach to work. A team is slightly different. The focus is on team goals. It also defines roles, responsibilities, and tasks but will often share and rotate them to help team do its work. The goals and approach to work w ill be shaped by the team members together.

Kingfisher Beer Company Case Analysis Essay Example for Free

Kingfisher Beer Company Case Analysis Essay Kingfisher Beer Company (KBC) has enjoyed being in top position in premium beer segment for the past fifty years and is now facing a potentially identity–changing challenge: the traditional premium beer market has been declining due to changes in consumer preferences at a compound annual rate of 4% and KBC for the first time is experiencing a decline in revenue, whilst a change in leadership infuses new energy to bring a change in their product line. Jake Hope, son of the retired president and owner of KBC faces the challenge of whether to introduce a ‘light’ beer in a growing beer segment, as maintaining status-quo would no more be an option to sustain their existing position in marketplace in the next few years (see Exhibit 2). I recommend that Jake would go for the light beer product venture. The recommendation is based on a complex assessment of the company’s financial viability and of more qualitative reflections. Even if for the year 2007 (the case is restrictive for only a 2-year horizon quantitative analysis) projected Operating Margin does not reach levels KBC had enjoyed in prior years, it is positive and growing substantially. Growth from $599,734 to $2,205,235 ($1,605,601 in absolute growth) from 2006 to 2007 with introduction of Light Beer versus of decline from $4,015,024 to $3,414,586 ($600,438 in absolute decline). If KBC will manage to reduce its lost sales of famous Lager (due to market conditions in the premium beer market) from 20% to slightly lower levels then the company could break-even in 2 years (Exhibit 1). From the case’s limited data it is still certain that introducing Light Beer and managing relatively moderate levels of cannibalization (20% or below – Exhibit 3) of the Lager sales opens opportunities to increase the firm’s financials. Moreover, it is essential to capitalize on growing light beer market (4% annually) which also will help fuel possible future expansion or to retain sustainability. According to market research, targeted segment where light beer drinking segment holds â€Å"anti-big-business† values, is already aware of the KBC brand so the firm can leverage on being independent family owned small regional company. In addition, the introduction of a new product will eliminate the risk of being on a single product brand and reduce risk of being in an unfavorable position with regards to distributors who favor more product offerings. On the other hand the introduction of the light beer will affect the brand image, alienate core customers, and squeeze margins. In addition, it is most likely the Company will not be able to sustain advertising and distribution cost against bigger competitors (high entry barrier, competitors strong presence in light beer market). This will lead also to additional unwanted cannibalization of Lager sales and more uneven relationships with distributors and retailers. My recommendation rests on several assumptions (exhibit). The key assumption is that the KBC will attain the 0. 25 market share to break even in 2007. Another assumption is that the light beer market will sustain its growth and consumer preferences will hold in the nearest future.

Analysis of Windows Operating System and Microsoft

Analysis of Windows Operating System and Microsoft What is Windows? Windows is a personal computer operating system from Microsoft that, together with some commonly used business applications such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Word and Excel, has become a de facto standard for individual users in most corporations as well as in most homes. It provides a graphical user interface (GUI), virtual memory management, multitasking, and support for many peripheral devices. According to OneStat.com, as of August, 2006, Windows as a whole dominates the personal computer world, running on about 97% of the operating system market share, with XP accounting for about 87% of that. In comparison Mac OS has about 2% and Linux (with all distributions) about .36% The reason why this is so is mainly because Windows is much more user friendly and everything comes pre-packaged so user just have to run the application and follow instructions for it to install. There are many versions of Windows Operating System available namely: Windows 286 Windows 386 Windows 3.0 and 3.11 Windows 95 Windows 98 Windows NT Windows 2000 Windows CE for use in small mobile computers Windows Me Windows XP Windows Vista Windows 7 Among all those versions, Windows XP is the most popular one and it is used by 61.9 percent of Internet users, according to data from Net Applications, followed by Windows 7 which has 14.46 percent of users and Vista -14.34 percent. A Brief Story On Windows Windows mainly concentrated on providing an operating system which was user-friendly, stable and less prone to crashes when they were implementing earlier versions. Now, even though XP is generally referred to being stable and efficient compared to other copies of Windows, it is still critised for being overly susceptible to security risks. Therefore the successor of XP- Vista, released in January of 2007 was designed in such a way so as it provides more security. The transition time between Vista and XP is the longest one between versions of windows. Vulnerabilities Of Windows What is vulnerability? â€Å"It is a weakness that makes a threat possible. â€Å" These vulnerabilities are used by attackers who exploits them to convey multiple attack, including enticing the users to open harmful and malicious media or to visit website which has a lot of viruses. These can have a lot of consequences. In the worst case, a hacker or attacker can get full access to the computer. Fortunately, windows provide a lot of solution to these vulnerabilities. The user just has to install the appropriate Microsoft patches or they are sometimes installed automatically with the help of Windows Update. Window Update Vulnerabilities can be compared to holes. They are like holes in the system. Windows periodically releases security patches mostly as Window Updates to fix those defects. There exists different level of security known as the â€Å"security level system† in Windows which describes the different levels of security holes: A critical security hole is â€Å"a vulnerability whose exploitation could allow the propagation of an Internet worm without user action.† An important hole is â€Å" A vulnerability whoses exploitation could result in compromise of the confidentiality, integrity, or availability of users data, or of the integrity or availability of processing recources.† A moderate security rating signifies that â€Å"Exploitability could result is mitigated to a significant degree by factors such as default configuration, auditing or difficulty of exploitation. And a low hole is â€Å"A vulnerability whose exploitation is extremely difficult or whose impact is minimal.† Source: Windows XP all-in-one desk reference for dummies Below is a list of Vulnerabilities in Windows MS10-033: Two Media Decompression Code Execution Vulnerabilities Description: It involves vulnerabilities in Media Decompression. â€Å"Windows ships with various components that help it process and play media files, such as videos. According to Microsoft, these media handling components suffer from two unspecified code execution vulnerabilities, involving the way they handle compressed data within specially crafted media. â€Å" Potential effect on system: An attacker can exploit these vulnerabilities by encouraging user to open specially crafted media file, download and install harmful software, by luring them to a website containing such media or by receiving specially crafted streaming content from a web site or any application that delivers Web content. In doing so, an attacker can exploit these vulnerabilities to gain the same user rights as the local user. If this happens, then the attacker will gain the complete control of that PC. Users whose accounts are configured to have fewer user rights on the system could be less impacted than users who operate with administrative user rights. Microsoft rating: Critical. Solution: MS10-033. Since media files are most often the common targets of exploitation by attackers due to the increased potential for circulation via social group and the fact that it has been publicly been disclosed, it is estimated that the possibility that malware authors will look to exploit these types of vulnerabilities are high and hence, update must be installed. Targeted Software: Windows 2000 Service Pack 4 Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 2 Windows Server 2003 x64 Edition Service Pack 2 Windows Server 2003 Itanium based Systems No Pack Service Pack 2 Windows XP Service Pack 2 and 3 Professional x64 Edition Service Pack 2 Windows Server 2008 No Service Pack Service Pack 2 Windows Server 2008 x64 Edition No Service Pack Service Pack 2 Windows Server 2008 for Itanium Based Systems No Pack Service Pack 2 Windows Vista Service Pack 1 2 Windows Vista x64 Edition Service Pack 1 2 MS10-034: Cumulative ActiveX Kill Bit Update Description:â€Å"ActiveX controls are small programs or animations that are downloaded or embedded in web pages which will typically enhance functionality and user experience. Many web design and development tools have built ActiveX support into their products, allowing developers to both create and make use of ActiveX controls in their programs. There are more than 1,000 existing ActiveX controls available for use today.† Source: http://msisac.cisecurity.org/advisories/2010/2010-043.cfm Potential effect on system: There are several Microsoft and third party ActiveX controls which particularly suffer from various security vulnerabilities, found by Microsoft and other external researchers. This vulnerability allows remote code execution if a user views malicious website that has an ActiveX control with Internet Explorer. An attacker could exploit any ActiveX controls to execute code on the users computer, with that users privileges. If user has administrative privileges, the attacker will gain full access to the users pc. Users whose accounts are configured to have fewer user rights on the system could be less impacted than users who operate with administrative user rights. Microsoft rating: Critical. Solution: MS10-008 This updates protects the pc by activating the Kill bit for every vulnerable ActiveX controls, they are this disabled in Windows. Microsoft Internet Explorer provides security feature which will prevent an ActiveX control from being downloaded without the users permission. Targeted Software: Windows 2000 Service Pack 4 Windows XP Service Pack 2 Windows XP Service Pack 3 Windows XP Professional x64 Edition Service Pack 2 Windows Server 2003 Windows Vista Windows Server 2008 Windows 7 or 32-bit Systems Windows 7 for x64-based Systems Windows Server 2008 R2 for x64-based Systems** Windows Server 2008 R2 for Itanium-based Systems MS10-032: Three Privilege Elevation Vulnerabilities in the Kernel-mode Driver (Win32k.sys) Description:†The kernel is the core component of any computer operating system. In Windows, access to the kernel is provided via the Windows kernel-mode device driver (Win32k.sys). Win32k.sys suffers from three elevation of privilege (EoP) vulnerabilities†.† The flaws are caused due to the way windows kernel-mode driver, improperly allocate memory when copying data from user mode frees objects that are no longer in use manage kernel-mode driver objects validate input passed from user mode. â€Å" Potential effect on system: â€Å"By running a specially crafted program on one of your Windows computers, an attacker can leverage any of these flaws to gain complete control of that system, regardless of his original user privileges. However, the attacker needs to have local access to one of your computers in order to run a malicious program. So these vulnerabilities primarily pose an internal risk.† Microsoft rating: Important. Solution: MS10-032 MS10-041: .NET Framework Data Tampering Vulnerability Description: â€Å"The .NET Framework is software framework used by developers to create new Windows and web applications. Among other things, the .NET framework includes capabilities to handle cryptographically signed XML content, to ensure unauthorized attackers cant alter XML messages being sent to your application. Unfortunately, the .NET framework doesnt implement XML signature checking properly. As a result, attackers could potentially send maliciously altered XML messages to applications youve created with the .NET framework† Potential Effect on system: The impact of this vulnerability differs greatly depending on the application youve designed, and what type of data you passed in your XML. If user havent been exposed to any web applications that rely on signed XML, then the flaw doesnt affect him at all. Microsoft rating: Important. Targeted Software: Microsoft .NET Framework 1.1 Service Pack 1 Microsoft .NET Framework 1.0 Service Pack 3 Microsoft .NET Framework 2.0 Service Pack 1 2 Microsoft .NET Framework 3.5 Microsoft .NET Framework 3.5 Service Pack 1 Microsoft .NET Framework 3.5.1 MS10-037: OpenType Compact Font Format (CFF) Driver Privilege Elevation Vulnerability Description: This vulnerability mainly occur when a driver that helps to display the OpenType CFF font, does not validate certain data passed from user space to kernel space. Moreover the driver can grant complete control of the affected system to any user who is logged in and is executing code. Potential effect on system: â€Å"By running a specially crafted program on one of your Windows computers, an attacker can exploit this flaw to gain complete control of that system, regardless of the attackers original user privileges. However, the attacker needs to have local access to one of your computers in order to run his malicious program. So this vulnerability primarily poses an internal risk.† Microsoft rating: Critical. Solution: MS10-037 Targeted Software: Microsoft Windows 2000 Service Pack 4 Windows XP Service Pack 2 3 Windows XP Professional x64 Edition Service Pck 2 Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 2 x64 Edition Service Pack 2 Windows Server 2003 for Itanium-based Systems Service Pack 2 Windows Vista Service Pack 1 2 Windows Vista x64 Edition Service Pack 1 and 2 Windows Server 2008 for 32-bit Systems No Service Pack and Service Pack 2 Windows Server 2008 for x64-based Systems No Service Pack and Service Pack 2 Windows Server 2008 for Itanium-based Systems No Service Pack and Service Pack 2 R2 for x64-based Systems Windows 7 for 32-bit Systems x64-based Systems These are a few examples of vulnerabilities that Windows Operating Systems mainly face. This list keeps on increasing with time, and fortunately Microsoft provides update so as to overcome these problems. Source: http://www.newagedev.net/2010/06/five-vulnerabilities-in-windows-and-its-components-two-critical/ http://www.sophos.com/ Threats Attacks There are many types of threats and attacks that Windows has to face. Also the fact that Windows operating system are most common among computer users, they are thus the more targeted by attackers. Threat V/S Attack What is a threat? â€Å"A potential occurrence malicious or otherwise that may harm an asset† What is an attack? â€Å"An action taken to harm an asset† From the two definitions above, we can say that a threat is more the possibility of doing harm to the Windows system, while attack is mainly the action taken to violate security settings. Types of Threats Attacks Below is a list of threats and attacks that are most common which can affect your Window Operating Systems. Types Of Threats Description Countermeasures Spoofing It mainly deals entering a system by stealing the identity of an authorised user. Example: Using the password and username of a person to enter his account and make changes without his permission. Do not keep password at the reach of other person. (for example in a plain text) Use spyware such as Spybot SD â€Å"Protect authentication cookies with Secure Sockets Layer (SSL).† â€Å"Do not pass credentials in plaintext over the wire.† Use strong and long password which is not easy to guess. Repudiation It involves the denial of participation in a communication which has occurred or denying that information has been received. Make use of digital signatures. Create secure audit trails. Tampering with data It mainly involves changing data manually to generate unexpected result. Example: Changing data on a web site. â€Å"Use data hashing and signing. Use digital signatures. Use strong authorization. Use tamper-resistant protocols across communication links. Secure communication links with protocols that provide message integrity.† Denial of service Prevent legitimate user from accessing a network or compuer by saturating it with requests. â€Å"Use resource and bandwidth throttling techniques. Validate and filter input.† Use software available on the net such as Radwares APSolute OS Information Disclosure It mainly involves making confidential information accessible to public or a group of unauthorised person. Encrypt file where information is stored. Keep back-up in secure places and use strong authorisations. Use passwords to be able to gain access to these information Use secure network when sending information. Malware (malicious Programs) It consists of any program that is installed either with or without permission of user, and whose aim is to cause harm to users pc by either gaining partial or full access to the system. Its impact can vary from slight as changing a folders name to full control of your machine without the ability for the user to easily find out. Types of Malicious Programs: computer viruses worms Trojan horses spyware Harmful adware scareware, crimeware, Most rootkits, and other malicious and unwanted software or program. Computer Viruses They are programs designed to cause harm to our computer system or the applications on the software. They are often attached to files which appear to be harmless to the operating system, but as soon as it is installed, the computer will operate different. There are viruses which even manage to close your computer without your permission. Types of Computer Viruses: * Boot sector computer viruses These types of viruses mainly affect the boot sector of the computer which is mainly in the bootable disk or in particular location in user computer hard drive. The boot sector viruses mainly affected the windows 2000 and examples of such viruses are: Disk Killer and Michelangelo. * Email viruses Emails viruses are transmitted through email as it name suggest. Normally they can be found as attachment and as soon as they are opened the computer gets the virus. Some may even replicate by themselves by forwarding themselves to all the e-mail addresses in the users address book. This type of virus is spread very quickly. Even though most of the mail system provides users with scan, a precaution one can take is opening mail from known-people only. * Companion viruses Companion viruses mainly affect a computers MS-DOS system. They create dangerous program that appears to be like the other normal files that are found on the computer. When a wrong command is enter into the prompt of the computer, it may end up executing the virus instead of the program that initially wanted to run. Fortunately, Windows like XP prevent such viruses from installing into computer as they do not require to use the MS-Dos command prompt. Worms Worms have the characteristic of self-replicating itself and they are thus spread very quickly. They exploit vulnerability on operating system and provide a gateway for other malware such as Trojan horse. An example of a worm which caused a lot of harm to mainly Window Operating system is: the ILOVEYOU virus. According to an article on WordPressTidBits For the Rest Of Us(WPTidBits), the ILOVEYOU worm (a.k.a. VBS/Loveletter and Love Bug worm), is a computer worm written in VBScript and it is considered by many as the most damaging worm ever. It started in the Philippines on May 4, 2000, and spread across the world in one day (traveling from Hong-Kong to Europe to the United States), infecting 10 percent of all computers connected to the Internet and causing about $5.5 billion in damage. Most of the â€Å"damage† was the labor of getting rid of the virus. The worm arrived in e-mail boxes with the simple subject of â€Å"ILOVEYOU† and an attachment â€Å"LOVE-LETTER-FOR-YOU.TXT.vbs†. The Pentagon, CIA, and the British Parliament had to shut down their e-mail systems to get rid of the worm, as did most large corporations. The worm overwrote important files, as well as music, multimedia and more, with a copy of itself. It also sent the worm to everyone on a users contact list. This particular worm only affected computers running the Microsoft Windows operating system. While any computer accessing e-mail could receive an â€Å"ILOVEYOU† e-mail, only Microsoft Windows systems would be infected. The worm propagates by sending out copies of itself to all entries in the Microsoft Outlook address book. It also has an additional component, in which it will download and execute an infected program called variously â€Å"WIN-BUGSFIX.EXE† or â€Å"Microsoftv25.exe†. This is a password-stealing program which will e-mail cached passwords. Trojan horse It is a malware which is difficult to detect, since it masquerades itself into files which appear to be normal. It can be on the computer without doing anything, and finally one day it can be the reason why your operating system has crashed. Unlike viruses, Trojan horses do not replicate themselves but they can be just as destructive. One of the most insidious types of Trojan horse is a program that claims to rid your computer of viruses but instead introduces viruses onto your computer. Spyware Spyware normally a tool used by companies to record web surfing habits Spyware is also known as the Advertising Supported software. They normally do not do any harm to the operating system as such, but they transmit personal identifiable information from a computer to some place in the internet without the permission of the user. Harmful adware â€Å"Adwareis the common name used to describe software that is given to the user with advertisements embedded in the application† They usually run advertisement or downloads posters without the permission of the user which often cause problem. Scareware Scareware are usually software used for marketing but which has unethical marketing tactics. For example, software which scans the computer and informs user that his computer is infected, and the later will have to download the following antivirus to be able to remove them. Hence, as its name says â€Å"scare† ware is a software designed to scare people by providing them with inexact information so as to promote a particular software/applications. Crimeware Crimeware consists of an application or a program which helps people to perform illegal activities. For example, software to hack windows live messenger password. They normally steal personal information about user of an account. Rootkit â€Å"It enables an attacker to have root access to the computer, which means it runs at the lowest level of the machine. A rootkit typically intercepts common API calls. For example, it can intercept requests to a file manager such as Explorer and cause it to keep certain files hidden from display, even reporting false file counts and sizes to the user. Rootkits came from the UNIX world and started out as a set of altered utilities such as the Is command, which is used to list file names in the directory (folder).† Source: http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=root+kiti=55733,00.asp Rootkits are normally inserted by the intruder so that he can again have access to it a later stage. Rather than just being a piece of code, it is a system of many linked programs designed to take control of a machine at the administrator level, and remain hidden to the systems users or legitimate administrators. The purpose of rootkits include collecting information about computers (including other computers on a network) and their users (such as passwords and financial information), causing such computers to malfunction and creating or relaying spam. Prevention against Malware Antivirus Antivirus should be installed to prevent malware from gaining access to the computer. Anti-spyware It helps user to identify and remove spyware from Operating system. Moreover it defends users computer from them Anti-adware It scans the computer and removes adware. Moreover it can also detect other miscellaneous codes which the antivirus has not detected. Firewall It is a set of device or devices that can be used to monitor both incoming malware from network or on users pc when he enters an external disk. Window Update Allow windows to update automatically, since it provides users computer with required patches to fight against new type of malware. Making Windows more secure 1. Virtualisation This method mainly involves using another computer in your computer. What is meant by that is software like Adware, allow you to install windows and use it. Thus you can connect to any device or any site and if the pc crash, there will still be your main Operating system running. 2. User Account Control It is a method which is mainly applicable for users of Vista and Windows 7 only. It an effective measure that Microsoft has made to ensure that user does not perform any action which can turn out to be harmful for the system. Also, user is being asked for permission whenever a program is installed. If a virus tries to run without the knowledge of the user or his permission, UAC will pop up with the usual continue or cancel message giving him one last chance to stop that particular infection. UAC can be adjusted in the Control Panel under User Accounts. 3. Browser Internet Explorer is not a safe browser. (Not including IE9) and they are the most targeted browser. Firefox, Chrome and Safari have support for extensions, and the options available for each browser Internet Explorer can be used however any version below 7 does not meet the required security level. When using it make sure that the â€Å"InPrivate and SmartScreen filters are active†. Also, make sure that the activeX and file being downloaded are safe. 4. Safe Internet Practices Internet contains many viruses and one will never know when they might hit. Below is a guideline for a few good practices to follow when using the internet: If its questionable in real life, its probably the same online. Downloading illegal torrents, visiting sites, and looking for bomb-making information is an easy way to ask for a virus infection. Know what is being clicking on. Avoid pop up messages, congratulations message etc.. Maintain computer by updating anti-virus. If not maintained, the system becomes slow and vulnerable. Monitor all activity on computer. If the computer is being used by other user, ensure that they too is using the computer correctly. Reach out and ask questions. Its ok not to know if a certain website is safe or if an email is a scam. Ask more knowledgeable people or research the subject to find out if it is or not. OpenDNS OpenDNS -redirects requests through a third party server which is managed and updated to optimize speed and security. Using the OpenDNS server can keep user from visiting known malicious sites or keep malicious scripts from running. This is especially useful for multi-user environments because user can create an account and manage in more detail what sites the computers are allowed to visit (parental controls).

Mary Shelleys Frankenstein :: essays research papers

BIRTH AND CREATION: One of the main issues in the novel, and also in Victor Frankenstein's mind. One of the reasons for creating his monster, Frankenstein was challenging nature's law of creation. That is, to create a being, male sperm and female egg must be united etc.. He was also fraught with the mystery of death and the life cycle. He created something in defiance of our understanding of birth and creation. However the similarity of Frankenstein's creation and a baby's creation is that both need to be held responsible for, and consequences dealt with, from the moment of birth. Frankenstein failed to do this with his creation. ?Whence did the principle of life proceed ?To examine the causes of life, we must first have recourse to death? ?I had worked hard for nearly two years, for the sole purpose of infusing life into an inanimate body? ALIENATION: Alienation is spoken of frequently throughout the novel. Felt by both Frankenstein and his creation. The monster is deserted by the very person who brought him into the world, thus leaving him completely and totally isolated. Frankenstein feels alienated, because he is burdened with the secret that he has let loose a monster on society and is the real reason for his loved ones deaths. He alienates himself because of his feelings of guilt, shame and hatred of himself for committing such a sin. The monster only realises his feelings of alienation after observing the cottagers for such a long time, comparing their lives to his own, extending his knowledge and then finally setting himself up for rejection when going in to the cottage, believing that they will accept him. Both eventually deal with their alienation by blaming the other and setting out to get revenge. ?All save I, were at rest or in enjoyment?, Monster (138) ?My protectors had departed, and had broken the only link that held me with the world?, Monster (140) ?I, the miserable, and the abandoned, am an abortion, to be spurned at, kicked, and trampled on.? Monster (224) ?Noone can conceive the anguish I suffered?. Frankenstein (78) ?I shunned the face of man?, Frankenstein (93) ?I feel as if I was walking on the edge of a precipice, towards which thousands are crowding, endeavouring to plunge me into the abyss?. Frankenstein (96) THE MONSTROUS AND THE HUMAN: The only difference between the monster in this novel, and humans, is the appearance, although it is a great difference there are greater similarities; brain, way of thinking, emotions etc.

Fall of Communism From Different Perspectives Essay -- History Analysi

When a major event takes place in history it is not surprising that many interpretations of these events will arise. As humans we tend to have different feelings and therefore different interpretations, especially on events that impact our lives and society. The fact that our judgments are different does not entail that either of our interpretations are wrong. Rather, it means that our different judgments can be combined in order to gain a new form of knowledge that envelops various points of view. This is the case with the interpretations of the groundbreaking fall of Communism that took place in eastern European countries in the late 20th century. The book The Magic Lantern is Timothy Garton Ash’s interpretation of the Revolutions of 1989 that took place in Warsaw, Budapest, Berlin and Prague. Bonnie G. Smith offers a similar but distinct contemporary interpretation of the Revolutions of 1989 in her book Europe in the Contemporary World. Lastly, John K. Glenn’s †Å"Competing Challengers and Contested Outcomes to State Breakdown† offers his opinion about the events that led to a democratic Czechoslovakia. In Ash’s account of the fall of communism in Warsaw, Poland he focuses on the behind the scenes propositions and decisions that were pondered by organizations such as Poland’s Solidarity group. Ash had close relationships with the leaders of the Solidarity group. In describing their actions, he calls them his â€Å"friends† on numerous occasions and even describes instances when he spent times with individuals such as Jacek Kuron, who was the co-founder of the Worker’s Defense Committee. Ash reports that he â€Å"†¦had a drink with Jacek Kuron, who passed the time before his results came in by giving a hilarious account on his first trip t... ...at are not influenced by personal beliefs or feelings. Above all the combination of their work allows us to absorb information that envelops all their points of view which makes for a better understanding of the Revolutions of 1989. I dare say that ultimately that was the main goal of Timothy Garton Ash, Bonnie G. Smith and John K.Glenn. Works Cited †¢ Garton, Ash Timothy. The Magic Lantern: the Revolution of '89 Witnessed in Warsaw, Budapest, Berlin, and Prague. New York: Random House, 1990. Print. †¢ Smith, Bonnie G. Europe in the Contemporary World, 1900 to the Present: a Narrative History with Documents. Boston: Bedford / St. Martin's, 2007. Print. †¢ Glenn, John K. "Competing Challengers and Contested Outcomes to State Breakdown: The Velvet Revolution." Social Forces 78.1 (1999): 187-211. JSTOR. Web. 10 Dec. 2010. .

Definition Essay †Defining God :: Expository Definition Essays

Definition Essay – Defining God The concept of God can be a difficult one to grasp especially in today's world - a world in which anyone that believes in God is trying to define exactly what God is. To even attempt to grasp such a concept, one must first recognize his own beliefs in respect to the following questions: Is God our creator? Is God omnipotent (all-powerful) or omniscient (all-knowing) or both? Does God care? Is God with us? Does God interfere with life on earth? These questions should be asked and carefully answered if one should truly wish to identify his specific beliefs in God's existence and persistence. One common perception of God is that God is not so much a being, but according to seventeenth century philosopher Benedict Spinoza, that "God is everything, identical to the universe itself." That is to say that God is a part of all humans, all animals, all objects, and all matter in the universe. This particular view is called pantheism, which is literally defined to mean that there is no God, but only the combined forces and laws that are manifested in the existing universe. According to Spinoza, we are each and all an integral part of God, not as individuals or even humanity as a whole but as an integral part of what Spinoza called the "One Substance." He also believed that we are each and all components of some greater being, a being so unimaginably large that we are each nothing more than tiny parcels of matter in that being's blood. Another fairly common perception of God is of relation God's necessity to physics, referred to as Deism and heavily supported by the French philosopher Voltaire. This view is of a God who created the universe and then abandoned it, assuming no control over life, exerting no influence on natural phenomena, and giving no supernatural revelation.